The Romans might have expected to destroy Carthage easily, but they soon met surprisingly determined opposition from the Punic defenders. What was supposed to be a quick campaign dragged on into a lengthy and bloody siege with skillful Carthaginian counterattacks and sallies. Only when Scipio Aemilianus, adopted grandson of the great Africanus, arr…

The thirty years following the deaths of Scipio and Hannibal saw Carthage revive economically. Relations with Rome and Numidia, however, remained strained to the utmost, especially due to the Numidian King Masinissa's continued encroachment on Carthaginian territory with tacit Roman approval. When the frustrated Carthaginians finally struck a blow …

The disaster of Zama left Carthage in political turmoil. In the years which followed, Hannibal was able to achieve a series of ambitious reforms which led to a remarkably fast economic recovery for Carthage. His autocratic nature soon excited jealousy from his fellow aristocrats though, and with Rome's help, Hannibal was forced into exile. After a …

With Hannibal’s recall to Africa, we finally reach the final showdown of the Second Punic War. Scipio and his disgraced survivors of Cannae faced Hannibal’s veterans of Italy on the plains of Zama. The victor would decide the war – and the course of history. Link to the Episode 49 page on the Layman's Historian website Recommended further reading: …

Following the disaster at the Metaurus, Hannibal retreated to southern Italy. Unable to defeat him openly yet fearful to leave him unopposed, the Roman Senate engaged in a fierce debate with the brilliant Publius Cornelius Scipio who had recently returned from Spain. In a tense showdown, Scipio convinced a grudging Senate to authorize an invasion o…

In the bitter and bewildering struggle during the years after Cannae, Rome at last gained the upper hand. However, Hannibal would be afforded one last chance to turn the tide of the war. This was the arrival of his brother, Hasdrubal, with a great army of mercenaries in northern Italy in 207 BC. As the two brothers attempted to join forces, the Rom…

While the conflicts in Spain and Sicily raged, Hannibal still clung tenaciously to the gains he had made in Italy. In the years following Cannae, he would experience a dizzying array of successes and setbacks against the Romans ranging from failed alliances with Macedon to the capture and recapture of major Italian cities. Even so, as the years wor…

Unlike Spain, Sicily had been relatively quiet during the opening years of the Second Punic War. That all changed in 216 BC with the death of Hiero II, King of Syracuse. Staunchly pro-Roman, Hiero had feared that his grandson and natural heir, Hieronymus, would lead Syracuse to disaster. His greatest fears were justified - shortly after the old kin…

With Hannibal immersed in the mire of Italian geopolitics, the Second Punic War shifts to theaters overseas. Keenly aware of the strategic importance of maintaining pressure on Carthage’s outposts in Spain, the Scipio brothers – Gnaeus and Publius Cornelius – grappled with Hannibal’s younger brother, Hasdrubal Barca for years, chipping away at the …

Following Cannae, Hannibal descended into the rich agricultural lands of Campania in Magna Graecia. Chafing under Roman rule and eager to reclaim her place as hegemon of southern Italy, the ancient Etruscan city of Capua quickly came to an agreement with Hannibal. In exchange for defecting to the Carthaginian side, Hannibal would allow Capua autono…

In the stillness following the destruction of their greatest army at the Battle of Cannae, the Romans faced an awful choice. The triumphant Hannibal stood poised to march on Rome herself and besiege the capital, and there was little the surviving remnants of legionaries could do to stop him. The Italian allies had already begun to waiver in their r…

Fabius the Delayer may have saved Minucius from disaster at Geronium, but he would not always be there to protect his impetuous colleagues from rushing into trouble. Following Fabius's relinquishment of the dictatorship, one of the newly-elected consuls, Gaius Terentius Varro, accused Fabius and the patricians of intentionally prolonging the war. I…

Following Hannibal's daring escape from Campania, Fabius's reputation in Rome lay in shambles. Subsequent victories by the Scipios in Spain and the fierce rhetoric of Fabius's lieutenant Minucius at last succeeded in having Minucius appointed as co-equal commander of the Roman army. Undeterred by this humiliation, Fabius continued in his single-min…

Following the disaster at Lake Trasimene, the Roman Senate took the drastic step of appointing a dictator - a single man with full military powers - to meet the crisis. The man chosen - Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus - differed greatly from the typical Roman aristocrat of his day. Cool-headed and steady handed, Fabius implemented a strategy of d…

Following the Battle of the River Trebia, Hannibal descended upon the rich province of Etruria in his advance into Italy. The new Roman consul, Gaius Flaminius, set out to confront the invaders with a mixture of fresh recruits as well as the survivors from Trebia. Arrogant, brash, and reckless, Flaminius led his legionaries in hot pursuit of the ma…

Having narrowly skirted disaster in the Alps, Hannibal and his army regrouped in the Po Valley of northern Italy while the Roman Consuls, Scipio and Sempronious, scrambled to intercept him. After thrashing the Romans under Scipio at the River Ticinus, Hannibal pursued Scipio’s retreating legions to the River Trebia. Here, Sempronious - proud, heads…

In early October 218 BC, Hannibal performed his most famous - and controversial - feat: the crossing of the Alps. Fighting hostile tribes, freezing cold, blinding snow, treacherous paths, and even the solid rock which barred his way, Hannibal forged a path across Europe’s tallest mountain range, elephants in tow. When he emerged into Italy, his for…

After he learned news of Rome's dramatic declaration of war, Hannibal departed New Carthage in May 218 BC to bring the war to Rome's heartland. Following a harrowing march through the Pyrenees, hostile Gallic tribes, and a major contested crossing of the Rhone River, Hannibal reached the fabled Alps where legend holds he declared: "I will find a wa…

Hasdrubal's sudden assassination catapulted Hamilcar's eldest son, the twenty-five-year-old Hannibal Barca, to power as Carthage's supreme general in Spain. Raised to be a soldier by his father and trained in both the theoretical and practical arts of warfare, Hannibal quickly subdued most Spanish tribes southeast of the Ebro. Only Saguntum, an ost…

Returning to the narrative, Hamilcar Barca, continuing his campaigns into the Spanish interior, died suddenly battling against hostile tribes in 228 BC. With Hamilcar's eldest son, the famous Hannibal, still in his teens, Hamilcar's son-in-law, Hasdrubal the Fair, succeeded the great Barcid leader in Spain. Charming, sophisticated, and diplomatic, …

Ever since the disastrous Battle of the Crimissus in 339 BC, Carthage proved reluctant to send her own citizens to war, preferring instead to pay others to do her fighting for her. Thus, her recruiters scoured the earth in search of the best mercenaries money could buy to supplement her native North African contingents of Libyans and Numidians. Alt…

In this second of three special episodes, we take an in-depth look at the Roman army which fought the majority of the Punic Wars - its equipment, formations, and most importantly, the fighting ethos which animated the men within it. What was the key to the Roman's success? Superior discipline? A flexible fighting style? Not so. Although these thing…

After a lengthy and unexpected absence, we are back with a new episode. In this episode, we take a break from the narrative and discuss the sources for the Punic Wars. Boring, you say? Not so. The writers on the Punic Wars form a rather eclectic assortment of characters, and the reasons that certain facts have come down to us often seems more due t…

In the wake of the Truceless War, the Carthaginians struggled to pick up the pieces of their broken country. Financially exhausted from the toll of the First Punic War, the huge war indemnity still owing to Rome, and the devastation of Carthage’s heartland by the rebel mercenaries during the Truceless War, the future looked dire for most if not all…

The murder of Gisco precipitated an escalation of the Truceless War. Both sides invented new ways to torture and slaughter their prisoners, with the mercenaries continuing to brutalize Carthaginian captives while Hamilcar threw his any rebels who fell into his hands to his elephants to be trampled to death. Worse news arrived when mercenary troops …

In the wake of the First Punic War, Carthage soon found the loss of her Sicilian holdings and Rome's harsh indemnity to be the least of her problems. Nearly bankrupt after twenty-four years of continuous warfare, she could not afford to pay her mercenary army which was returning from Sicily. The crisis was further compounded by the blundering effor…

With both Rome and Carthage exhausted by the constant strain of war, the Carthaginians dispatched the young Hamilcar Barca to take over a much-depleted command in Sicily. While Hanno the Great insisted on demobilizing the Carthaginian war fleet to save money and opened up new fronts against the Numidians in the African interior, Hamilcar led his me…

Following the Battle of Tunis, the Carthaginians felt supremely confident in their newly revamped land forces and rebuilt navy. That confidence did not last, however. The Roman relief fleet sent to retrieve the survivors of Regulus' failed expedition trounced Carthage's war fleet once again, right before it was also destroyed in a cataclysmic storm…

With Carthage on the ropes after the Battle of Cape Ecnomus, the Romans landed on the Cape Bon Peninsula, a mere forty miles from Carthage, and began ravaging the rich countryside. Confident of victory, Regulus, the Roman consul in command, offered such harsh terms to the Carthaginians that they chose to continue fighting rather than submit to such…

Bolstered by their early successes with their new battle fleet, the Romans determined to gamble everything for a decisive "killing blow" in order to bring Carthage to her knees. Equipping a massive armada, the Romans sailed to invade North Africa itself in an attempt to defeat Carthage on her home soil. However, a newly revamped Carthaginian fleet …

With the fall of Acragas, the Romans realized that they now had an opportunity to wrest control of the whole of Sicily away from Carthage. In order to do so, however, they would have to challenge Carthage on her own element – the sea. Using a captured Carthaginian quinquereme as their template, the Romans initiated a startling shipbuilding initiati…

Having drifted into the First Punic War, Rome and Carthage both marshaled their forces and shipped them to Sicily. The Carthaginians sought to establish the city of Acragas as their base of operations due to its strategic location in southern Sicily and proximity to Roman-controlled territory. Similarly, the Romans besieged Acragas to cut off the C…

The day has arrived. After Pyrrhus's retreat from Italy in 275 BC, Carthage and Rome found themselves to be new neighbors with only a two mile stretch of water in the Strait of Messina separating them from each other. Although it is debatable whether the First Punic War was inevitable, its causes were rooted in many things, including the Romans’ be…

In Part II of our overview of the career of Pyrrhus of Epirus, we pick up with Pyrrhus's campaigns in southern Italy. After whipping his Tarentine allies into shape, Pyrrhus defeated the Romans in two brutal battles, although both battles cost him so many of his own men that the term "Pyrrhic Victory" became proverbial. Following a brief stint in S…

Resuming our narrative of the history of Carthage, we turn to one of the successor realms in the West. Pyrrhus, a second cousin of Alexander the Great, rose to become King of Epirus after a tumultuous and eventful childhood. After distinguishing himself by his skill as a military commander and his personal bravery, Pyrrhus invaded Italy in 280 BC a…

Completing our tour of the Mediterranean circa 300 BC, we finish with the history of the upstart city-state of Rome. Born into the harsh and competitive world of ancient Italy, Rome from the start was an aggressive, warlike, and proud civilization intent on not only surviving but thriving in the chaos which surrounded her. Her history is one of con…

Continuing our tour of the Mediterranean circa 300 BC, we now turn to the squabbling Hellenic successor kingdoms in the East. Alexander the Great and his Macedonians succeeded in building a world empire that stretched from Greece to India in twelve short years, but Alexander's sudden death threw his newly-acquired realm into chaos. Following nearly…

Having explored the peoples of North Africa and Spain, we move north to examine one of the most feared peoples of Antiquity: the Keltoi. Centered on Gaul, modern-day France, the Keltoi or Celts were renowned for their ferocity in battle as well as their great physical stature and strength, the prototypical barbarians. Yet they built well-organized …

Continuing our tour of the Mediterranean around 300 BC, we look at the peoples of North Africa, specifically the Libyan tribes including the fierce Garamantines, the stern Mauri, and the nimble Numidians. From there, we briefly touch on the Liby-Phoenician colonies in North Africa and Spain before finishing with the Iberian tribes of Spain. If you …

With the close of the Sicilian Wars, we have a perfect opportunity to pause in our narrative and take a look around at Carthage and the surrounding civilizations. In this episode, we will cover the city of Carthage in detail as she stood in the early 200s BC before covering what the everyday Carthaginian looked like as well as the different social …

After the stunning Greek victory at White Tunis, Agathocles began leisurely pillaging the Carthaginian countryside, amassing riches and terrorizing the inhabitants. Back in Sicily, Hamilcar Gisco was not so lucky, ultimately losing his life in a disastrous night attack. Now, with her armies crippled, a foreign invader at her gates, and traitors wit…

After driving the Greeks back to Syracuse in the Battle of the River Himera, Hamilcar Gisco and his Carthaginians settled in to besiege the city. However, Agathocles refused to remain cooped up within the walls. Conceiving of a bold gamble likely inspired by his hero Alexander, Agathocles determined to invade North Africa and take the war to Cartha…

Following Agathocles's bloody and tyrannical rise to power, Carthage dispatched an army under Hamilcar Gisco to put down this new upstart regime. After committing more atrocities at Gela for good measure, Agathocles met the Carthaginians at the Battle of the River Himera. Although he almost took the Carthaginian camp by storm, his forces were drive…

After Timoleon's death, Sicily enjoyed an unprecedented twenty-year period of peace and prosperity. Things were not so quiet in the East, however. The Macedonians, under Philip II and his son Alexander, soon to be known as the Great, had forged in twelve short years an empire that covered the known world from Greece to India. In the wake of Alexand…

With Dionysius out of the way, Carthage, despite internal struggles, began to extend her authority over most of Sicily through strategic alliances and concentrated military actions. Syracuse had almost immediately returned to her old ways after Dionysius's death, and her people were divided in endless squabbles and feuds. With Syracuse temporarily …

Although Carthage had scored some resounding victories against Syracuse, in the fourth century BC, she came up against a significant challenge in the person of Dionysius, Tyrant of Syracuse. A former mercenary captain, an ambitious ruler but a mediocre poet, Dionysius would rule Syracuse for 38 years. Ambitious, bold, and cunning, Dionysius revital…

During the seventy year peace with Syracuse, Carthage regrouped by instituting government reforms and overhauling its tremendous infrastructure. Meanwhile, Syracusan factions squabbled internally, fluctuating between democratic and autocratic governments. Despite this, Syracuse won a stunning victory against Athens in the Sicilian Expedition, only …

When Carthage expanded its reach into the western coast of Sicily, it became neighbors with the powerful Hellenic colonies of Greece on the eastern side of the island. The Greeks had their own impressive civilization, and Hellenic ingenuity and military innovation made the Greeks a formidable force in Mediterranean politics. The Greek colony of Syr…

Following the growth of Carthage into a commercial, political, and technological power, the Carthaginians began to expand outwards from their city. Delving into North Africa and across the Mediterranean, Carthage formed an informal empire for itself using trade, diplomacy, and concentrated military force. Meanwhile, Carthaginian ships sailed furthe…

After Dido's founding, Qart-Hadasht, or Carthage, grew exponentially, quickly establishing itself as a commercial powerhouse in the Western Mediterranean. Not only did it become a major industrial center like its Tyrian forebear, Carthage also led the way in pioneering agricultural techniques. However, a shadow fell over the city, for the Temple of…